Early Islamic history often receives
accusations of jihads and barbarism intent on conquest and intolerance. This
characterization and stereotyping received new impetus with the recent history
of terrorism spreading from radical forms of Islam. Even sympathetic scholars
tend to paint a stark picture between the Islamic caliphs and Western culture.
Amira K. Bennison presents a much broader picture of the Abbasid caliphates as
a center of learning, science, and culture. While the caliphate appears
intolerant in comparison to modern standards, the Abbasids typically allowed
Jews, Christians, and Zoroastrians to worship and participate within the confines
of their rule. Within the pages of TheGreat Caliphs: The Golden Age of the Abbasid Empire, Bennison discusses the
false dichotomy which stresses a stark difference between early Islam and the
West. She rejects the oriental label placed upon Islam and instead stresses the
connections early Muslims had with Graeco-Roman, Byzantine, and Sasanian
heritages while developing their own “separate and sparkling Islamic character.
(Bennison, 3) Greek science and philosophy entered medieval Europe through
Arabic sources but the Arabs were not merely neutral messengers but they fully
engaged with resources “translated from Greek, Persian, and Sanskrit into
Arabic, and that they added a great deal of new material to the information
they received.” (3) Unlike the stereotype perpetuated today, the Abbasid
Caliphs presided over a cosmopolitan society that shared traditions from many
great civilizations.
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| The Umayyad Caliphate from IBDP History |
The Abbasid Empire rose in the 750s from
the decline of the Umayyad caliphate and originated about 120 years after the
death of the Prophet Muhammad in 632. The Caliph was the political and
spiritual head of the Muslim community. While early Muslims were not specific
in their description of the role of the Caliph, the significance of his
leadership was evident as the successor to the Prophet. The first four caliphs
chosen by consensus from early Muslims received the title the Rightly GuidedCaliphs from the Sunni majority. These men assumed the role of imam and commander of the faithful,
filling a spiritual, political, and military role. Mu’awiya was the first
caliph of the younger generation and moved the seat of power from Medina to
Damascus. Damascus allowed the empire to continue their conquests and direct
their empire from a central location. But the adoption of a hereditary
succession for caliphs prepared the way for a Abbasid rise in 750. After Yazid
became caliph after his father Mu’awiya died, Husayan the head of the Alid clan
challenged Yazid. The slaughter of many Alid, even the grandson of the Prophet
caused a rift between the Umayyads and the Shias.
The Abbasids rose to power, promising a
just Islamic rule and a caliphate closer in relationship to Muhammad. The
Abbasid caliphate lasted for over five hundred years and “presided over the
maturation of the early Islamic empire from a state supported by the fruits of
conquest- tribute, booty, and slaves- to one supported by the taxation of land,
produce, and people.” (28) The five
hundred year rule of the Abbasids can be divided into three periods with the
early Abbasid caliphate lasting from the mid-eighth to the early ninth
centuries. The middle caliphate saw the creation of a Turkish army and a move
to Samarra for fifty years. During the mid-ninth to the mid-tenth the caliphs
found themselves dominated by Shi’i warlords and Shi’i Fatimids with the
Fatimids creating a rival caliphate. During the third phase, the caliphs were
at the mercy of the Saljuq Turks who ruled from Baghdad. The Saljuq Sultanate
produced a situation in which many sultanates existed simultaneously creating a
more pluralistic understanding of Muslim political life. (46) The entrance of
the European Crusaders saw the demise of the Abbasid caliphate. While the
crusaders made temporary inroads into caliphate territory, the Mongol invaders
hastened the end of the Abbasid caliphate. The Europeans were a sideshow while
the Mongols succeeded in capturing Baghdad, killing the caliph, and
transforming the political geography of the Middle East. (53)
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| The Abbasid Caliphate |
The Abbasid caliphs created urban centers
that teemed with culture, fantastic architecture, and art. The urban life of
the caliphs demonstrated both continuity and change from the Roman
Mediterranean and Middle Eastern society. The reality contrasted greatly with the
orientalist and imperialistic attitudes of Arab cities as dirty and cramped.
Early Arab Muslims brought “deep-rooted urban traditions” which they imported
to newly conquered territories. (57) Early towns featured a vibrant market life
and Arab’s negotiated with Christians over space. The construction of Baghdad
as the center of the Abbasid caliphate brought Persian influence in the design
and layout and became the center of a vast Islamic empire stretching from India
to Tunisia. The architectural influence of the caliph spread to Abbasid
governors and the Umayyads in Spain as others styled their cities after
Baghdad. (74) The Abbasids saw their empire as territory connected by roads and
highways, and they made use of engineering and technology of the time to deal
with their water and sanitation issues. Mosques, schools, and shopping
districts made life pleasant and while poverty existed, “the Abbasid age
offered one way in which humans could live in a sophisticated and pleasant
urban life.” (93)
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| From Wikipedia |
Abbasid life while dominated by Islam
still contained an aura of cosmopolitan variety with Christians, Jews, and
Zoroastrians living with a degree of tolerance. Instead of the conversion by
sword these religious groups enjoyed the freedom to worship as long as they
acknowledged Abbasid rule. In the beginning of Abbasid rule, Muslims were a
minority but converts increased as conversion brought new opportunities. As
Christians and Jews became minorities they still enjoyed relative freedom as
Muslims considered both Jews and Christians as people of the Book. But the
courts of the caliphs provided opportunities for many as the he depended upon
ministers and officials to administer his empire. Scholars, poets, and
secretaries found important roles within the administration. Religious
minorities found inclusion as the caliph used Zoroastrian astrologers and
astronomers, as well as Christian physicians.
Trade was a vital factor of the empire as
seen from the beginning of Islam. Mecca was the center of trade on the Arabian Peninsula
before the birth of Islam as pagans journeyed to Mecca for religious purposes. Islam
was “not the product of an isolated desert outpost, but of a region with a long
commercial history in addition to well-established cultural, political, and military
connections with the Fertile Crescent and the lands beyond.” (138) Trade played
a role with Muhammad and the relationship with his first wife Khadija and the hadith contains numerous sayings placing
value upon trade and commerce. (139) This value placed upon commerce reflected
on the massive amount of trade within the Abbasid Empire as well as areas
outside their regions. Traders dealt in dried fruit, wine, cloth, weapons, and
slaves as Muslims dominated the Mediterranean trading routes.
At the center of the Abbasid Empire, the
city of Baghdad observed a renaissance as Math, Arabic grammar, rhetoric, and
poetry offered an intellectual picture of a society with advanced learning.
Stress on Arabic created an Arabic self-identity and an intellectual culture
centered on Arabic. Over time Christians began writing books in Arabic so their
ideas gained a wider audience. While the Quran was the primary textbook other
subjects such as sports and music found opportunities under private tutors.
(163) Abbasid scholarship began to steer away from the Syrian thought
influenced by the Byzantines and produced a more “universal Muslim sense of
identity.” (167) Muslim work at translation and transmission of ancient Greek
and Persian documents not only enriched Muslim scholarship but made positive
contributions to human civilization. Islamic scholars sought out Greek,
Persian, and Indian learning and translated the works into Arabic. But Muslims
interacted with the knowledge and made their own contributions. Baghdad saw the
appearance of intellectual majlis or
salons, where scholars, thinkers, and poets gathered for stimulating discussion
and debate. Muslims, Christians, and Jews gathered together freely to share
their opinions. (181)
Of special interest is the religious role
of the Caliph. From the beginning, the caliph possessed a religious function
within the community. With the passing of time, religious scholars saw Quranic
interpretation as their primary function and believed that the role of the caliph
was secondary to their position. Caliph Al-Ma’mun had a deep dislike for hadith scholars and forcibly expressed
his opinion regarding the nature of the Quran. Most religious scholars viewed
the Quran as uncreated although the caliph believed that this doctrine
encroached upon the transcendence of God. Near the end of his rule Al-Ma’mun
formed an inquiry (mihna) and
insisted that scholars teach the doctrine of the createdness of the Quran.
While the inquiry was tame compared to similar European religious courts, the
religious scholars eventually won the argument regarding the nature of the
Quran. (34-35)
While the European Renaissance remains a
European event, the contribution of Islamic scholars to an understanding of the
classical world remains an integral part of study. Europeans experienced a
revival of classical culture in the Renaissance but that revival depended upon
the Arabic intellectuals who preserved and interacted with the classical
tradition. The Abbasid intellectual tradition contributed mightily to our
present understanding of the classics and art. This is an understanding which
builds bridges and contributes to positive interactions in the future.
