Tuesday, September 25, 2018

The Great Caliphs




Early Islamic history often receives accusations of jihads and barbarism intent on conquest and intolerance. This characterization and stereotyping received new impetus with the recent history of terrorism spreading from radical forms of Islam. Even sympathetic scholars tend to paint a stark picture between the Islamic caliphs and Western culture. Amira K. Bennison presents a much broader picture of the Abbasid caliphates as a center of learning, science, and culture. While the caliphate appears intolerant in comparison to modern standards, the Abbasids typically allowed Jews, Christians, and Zoroastrians to worship and participate within the confines of their rule. Within the pages of TheGreat Caliphs: The Golden Age of the Abbasid Empire, Bennison discusses the false dichotomy which stresses a stark difference between early Islam and the West. She rejects the oriental label placed upon Islam and instead stresses the connections early Muslims had with Graeco-Roman, Byzantine, and Sasanian heritages while developing their own “separate and sparkling Islamic character. (Bennison, 3) Greek science and philosophy entered medieval Europe through Arabic sources but the Arabs were not merely neutral messengers but they fully engaged with resources “translated from Greek, Persian, and Sanskrit into Arabic, and that they added a great deal of new material to the information they received.” (3) Unlike the stereotype perpetuated today, the Abbasid Caliphs presided over a cosmopolitan society that shared traditions from many great civilizations.  
The Umayyad Caliphate from IBDP History

The Abbasid Empire rose in the 750s from the decline of the Umayyad caliphate and originated about 120 years after the death of the Prophet Muhammad in 632. The Caliph was the political and spiritual head of the Muslim community. While early Muslims were not specific in their description of the role of the Caliph, the significance of his leadership was evident as the successor to the Prophet. The first four caliphs chosen by consensus from early Muslims received the title the Rightly GuidedCaliphs from the Sunni majority. These men assumed the role of imam and commander of the faithful, filling a spiritual, political, and military role. Mu’awiya was the first caliph of the younger generation and moved the seat of power from Medina to Damascus. Damascus allowed the empire to continue their conquests and direct their empire from a central location. But the adoption of a hereditary succession for caliphs prepared the way for a Abbasid rise in 750. After Yazid became caliph after his father Mu’awiya died, Husayan the head of the Alid clan challenged Yazid. The slaughter of many Alid, even the grandson of the Prophet caused a rift between the Umayyads and the Shias.
The Abbasids rose to power, promising a just Islamic rule and a caliphate closer in relationship to Muhammad. The Abbasid caliphate lasted for over five hundred years and “presided over the maturation of the early Islamic empire from a state supported by the fruits of conquest- tribute, booty, and slaves- to one supported by the taxation of land, produce, and people.” (28)  The five hundred year rule of the Abbasids can be divided into three periods with the early Abbasid caliphate lasting from the mid-eighth to the early ninth centuries. The middle caliphate saw the creation of a Turkish army and a move to Samarra for fifty years. During the mid-ninth to the mid-tenth the caliphs found themselves dominated by Shi’i warlords and Shi’i Fatimids with the Fatimids creating a rival caliphate. During the third phase, the caliphs were at the mercy of the Saljuq Turks who ruled from Baghdad. The Saljuq Sultanate produced a situation in which many sultanates existed simultaneously creating a more pluralistic understanding of Muslim political life. (46) The entrance of the European Crusaders saw the demise of the Abbasid caliphate. While the crusaders made temporary inroads into caliphate territory, the Mongol invaders hastened the end of the Abbasid caliphate. The Europeans were a sideshow while the Mongols succeeded in capturing Baghdad, killing the caliph, and transforming the political geography of the Middle East. (53)
The Abbasid Caliphate 

The Abbasid caliphs created urban centers that teemed with culture, fantastic architecture, and art. The urban life of the caliphs demonstrated both continuity and change from the Roman Mediterranean and Middle Eastern society. The reality contrasted greatly with the orientalist and imperialistic attitudes of Arab cities as dirty and cramped. Early Arab Muslims brought “deep-rooted urban traditions” which they imported to newly conquered territories. (57) Early towns featured a vibrant market life and Arab’s negotiated with Christians over space. The construction of Baghdad as the center of the Abbasid caliphate brought Persian influence in the design and layout and became the center of a vast Islamic empire stretching from India to Tunisia. The architectural influence of the caliph spread to Abbasid governors and the Umayyads in Spain as others styled their cities after Baghdad. (74) The Abbasids saw their empire as territory connected by roads and highways, and they made use of engineering and technology of the time to deal with their water and sanitation issues. Mosques, schools, and shopping districts made life pleasant and while poverty existed, “the Abbasid age offered one way in which humans could live in a sophisticated and pleasant urban life.” (93)
From Wikipedia

Abbasid life while dominated by Islam still contained an aura of cosmopolitan variety with Christians, Jews, and Zoroastrians living with a degree of tolerance. Instead of the conversion by sword these religious groups enjoyed the freedom to worship as long as they acknowledged Abbasid rule. In the beginning of Abbasid rule, Muslims were a minority but converts increased as conversion brought new opportunities. As Christians and Jews became minorities they still enjoyed relative freedom as Muslims considered both Jews and Christians as people of the Book. But the courts of the caliphs provided opportunities for many as the he depended upon ministers and officials to administer his empire. Scholars, poets, and secretaries found important roles within the administration. Religious minorities found inclusion as the caliph used Zoroastrian astrologers and astronomers, as well as Christian physicians.
Trade was a vital factor of the empire as seen from the beginning of Islam. Mecca was the center of trade on the Arabian Peninsula before the birth of Islam as pagans journeyed to Mecca for religious purposes. Islam was “not the product of an isolated desert outpost, but of a region with a long commercial history in addition to well-established cultural, political, and military connections with the Fertile Crescent and the lands beyond.” (138) Trade played a role with Muhammad and the relationship with his first wife Khadija and the hadith contains numerous sayings placing value upon trade and commerce. (139) This value placed upon commerce reflected on the massive amount of trade within the Abbasid Empire as well as areas outside their regions. Traders dealt in dried fruit, wine, cloth, weapons, and slaves as Muslims dominated the Mediterranean trading routes.  

At the center of the Abbasid Empire, the city of Baghdad observed a renaissance as Math, Arabic grammar, rhetoric, and poetry offered an intellectual picture of a society with advanced learning. Stress on Arabic created an Arabic self-identity and an intellectual culture centered on Arabic. Over time Christians began writing books in Arabic so their ideas gained a wider audience. While the Quran was the primary textbook other subjects such as sports and music found opportunities under private tutors. (163) Abbasid scholarship began to steer away from the Syrian thought influenced by the Byzantines and produced a more “universal Muslim sense of identity.” (167) Muslim work at translation and transmission of ancient Greek and Persian documents not only enriched Muslim scholarship but made positive contributions to human civilization. Islamic scholars sought out Greek, Persian, and Indian learning and translated the works into Arabic. But Muslims interacted with the knowledge and made their own contributions. Baghdad saw the appearance of intellectual majlis or salons, where scholars, thinkers, and poets gathered for stimulating discussion and debate. Muslims, Christians, and Jews gathered together freely to share their opinions. (181)
Of special interest is the religious role of the Caliph. From the beginning, the caliph possessed a religious function within the community. With the passing of time, religious scholars saw Quranic interpretation as their primary function and believed that the role of the caliph was secondary to their position. Caliph Al-Ma’mun had a deep dislike for hadith scholars and forcibly expressed his opinion regarding the nature of the Quran. Most religious scholars viewed the Quran as uncreated although the caliph believed that this doctrine encroached upon the transcendence of God. Near the end of his rule Al-Ma’mun formed an inquiry (mihna) and insisted that scholars teach the doctrine of the createdness of the Quran. While the inquiry was tame compared to similar European religious courts, the religious scholars eventually won the argument regarding the nature of the Quran. (34-35)
While the European Renaissance remains a European event, the contribution of Islamic scholars to an understanding of the classical world remains an integral part of study. Europeans experienced a revival of classical culture in the Renaissance but that revival depended upon the Arabic intellectuals who preserved and interacted with the classical tradition. The Abbasid intellectual tradition contributed mightily to our present understanding of the classics and art. This is an understanding which builds bridges and contributes to positive interactions in the future.





           



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